18 30 36 P. 13 State-of-the-Art Upcycling for AM Feedstocks Impact of Grain Size on Heat Treatment Advancements in Shape Memory Implants ADDITIVE BRAZING: KEY TO DURABLE COATINGS ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING MARCH 2026 | VOL 184 | NO 2
18 30 36 P. 13 State-of-the-Art Upcycling for AM Feedstocks Impact of Grain Size on Heat Treatment Advancements in Shape Memory Implants ADDITIVE BRAZING: KEY TO DURABLE COATINGS ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING MARCH 2026 | VOL 184 | NO 2
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23 FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS: A SYSTEMIC PROBLEMSOLVING PROCESS, PART III Jeffrey L. Hess The third article of a series describes the 8P failure investigation process to assist in the initiation, documentation, and presentation of a failure investigation. ADDITIVE BRAZING FOR NEW PART PRODUCTION, REMANUFACTURING, AND WEAR PROTECTION Ino Rass and Timo Kolberg Additive brazing produces dense, wear-resistant, crack-free, and corrosion-resistant coatings that often do not require further processing. 13 ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 2 Micrograph of an atmosphere brazed tungsten carbide coating on ductile cast iron. Courtesy of Euromat GmbH. On the Cover: 51 ASM NEWS The latest news about ASM members, chapters, events, awards, conferences, affiliates, and other Society activities. MACHINE LEARNING | AI Scientists play with foam bubbles and find the math mirrors how AI systems learn while DOE researchers run thousands of experiments in just five months for their work on organic redox flow batteries. 10
4 Editorial 5 Research Tracks 10 Machine Learning/AI 6 Metals/Polymers/Ceramics 8 Testing/Characterization 9 FAS Summit Highlights 11 Process Technology 12 Emerging Technology 63 Editorial Preview 63 Special Advertising Section 63 Advertisers Index 64 3D PrintShop TRENDS INDUSTRY NEWS DEPARTMENTS Check out the Digital Edition online at asminternational.org/news/magazines/am-p ASM International serves materials professionals, nontechnical personnel, and managers worldwide by providing high-quality materials information, education and training, networking opportunities, and professional development resources in cost-effective and user-friendly formats. ASM is where materials users, producers, and manufacturers converge to do business. Advanced Materials & Processes (ISSN 0882-7958, USPS 762080) publishes six issues per year: January, March, May, July, September, and November, by ASM International, 9639 Kinsman Road, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002; tel: 440.338.5151; fax: 440.338.4634. Periodicals postage paid at Novelty, Ohio, and additional mailing offices. Vol. 184, No. 2, MARCH 2026. Copyright © 2026 by ASM International®. All rights reserved. Distributed at no charge to ASM members in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. International members can pay a $30 per year surcharge to receive printed issues. Subscriptions: $499. Single copies: $54. POSTMASTER: Send 3579 forms to ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002. Change of address: Request for change should include old address of the subscriber. Missing numbers due to “change of address” cannot be replaced. Claims for nondelivery must be made within 60 days of issue. Canada Post Publications Mail Agreement No. 40732105. Return undeliverable Canadian addresses to: 13487 S Preston Hwy, Lebanon Junction, KY 40150. Printed by Kodi Collective, Lebanon Junction, Ky. FEATURES MARCH 2026 | VOL 184 | NO 2 ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 3 18 36 45 30 45 iTSSe DEGRADATION OF SUSPENSIONS FOR PLASMA SPRAYING: A TECHNICAL NOTE Johannes-Christian Schmitt and Georg Mauer This study describes how larger particle size and the hereby resulting speckle formation can affect coating properties and decrease deposition efficiency. See also: ITSC Showcase, p 50, and JTST Highlights, p 49. 18 STATE OF THE ART IN MATERIAL UPCYCLING FOR ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING Sweta Baruah From machining scrap to recycled powders and polymers, upcycling is rapidly moving into mainstream AM—an overview of the processes, current state, impacts, and future view. 30 HTPro IN HEAT TREAT, SIZE REALLY DOES MATTER Stephen Kowalski Avoid headaches and extra expense by understanding the critical impact grain size has on heat treatment. See also: Heat Treat Mexico 2026 Showcase, p 28. 36 SMST NewsWire ADVANCEMENTS IN SHAPE MEMORY IMPLANTABLE MEDICAL DEVICES Scott Robertson Recent developments in bioelectronics and power supply miniaturization are providing new design opportunities for in vivo shape memory devices. See also: SMST Showcase, p 43, and SMJ Highlights, p 41.
4 ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 ASM International 9639 Kinsman Road, Materials Park, OH 44073 Tel: 440.338.5151 • Fax: 440.338.4634 Joanne Miller, Editor joanne.miller@asminternational.org Victoria Burt, Managing Editor vicki.burt@asminternational.org Frances Richards and Corinne Richards Contributing Editors Anne Vidmar, Layout and Design Allison Freeman, Production Manager allie.freeman@asminternational.org EDITORIAL COMMITTEE John Shingledecker, Chair, EPRI Beth Armstrong, Vice Chair, Oak Ridge National Lab Adam Farrow, Past Chair, Los Alamos National Lab Yun Bai, Ford Carl Boehlert, Michigan State University Punnathat Bordeenithikasem, Machina Labs Daniel Grice, Materials Evaluation & Engineering Surojit Gupta, University of North Dakota Hideyuki Kanematsu, Suzuka National College of Technology Ibrahim Karaman, Texas A&M University Ricardo Komai, Tesla Krassimir Marchev, Northeastern University Bhargavi Mummareddy, Dimensional Energy Scott Olig, U.S. Naval Research Lab Christian Paglia, SUPSI Institute of Materials and Construction Ryan Paul, GrafTech International Satyam Sahay, John Deere Technology Center India Abhijit Sengupta, USA Federal Government Kumar Sridharan, University of Wisconsin Vasisht Venkatesh, Howmet Aerospace ASM BOARD OF TRUSTEES Elizabeth Ho man, President and Chair Daniel P. Dennies, Senior Vice President Tirumalai Sudarshan, Vice President Navin Manjooran, Immediate Past President William Jarosinski, Treasurer Rahul Gupta Hanchen Huang Victoria Miller Christopher J. Misorski Erik Mueller Ramana G. Reddy JP Singh Dehua Yang Fan Zhang Veronica Becker, Executive Director STUDENT BOARD MEMBERS Victoria Anson, Emily Ghosh, Wyeth Haddock Individual readers of Advanced Materials & Processes may, without charge, make single copies of pages therefrom for personal or archival use, or may freely make such copies in such numbers as are deemed useful for educational or research purposes and are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to cite or quote from articles herein, provided customary acknowledgment of the authors and source is made. The acceptance and publication of manuscripts in Advanced Materials & Processes does not imply that the reviewers, editors, or publisher accept, approve, or endorse the data, opinions, and conclusions of the authors. ADDITIVE IN ‘LA BELLE PROVINCE’ At ASM’s annual meeting last year, IMAT 2025, no less than 10 sessions were held on additive manufacturing (AM), making it one of the most attended topical areas at the conference. The symposia covered various aspects including innovations in design, materials, processes, and applications; sustainability; and microstructure in AM (a joint session with the International Metallographic Society). Plans are now underway for IMAT 2026, and the Call for Papers is currently open with AM again as a prominent focus. In addition to last year’s topics, organizers are also looking for abstracts on AM process structure and properties, applications, and powder-based surface engineering, which will be a joint session with the Thermal Spray Society. We invite you to submit an abstract or encourage a colleague to do so. If you need more incentive to attend, the event will be held in picturesque Quebec City, Canada, September 28 – October 1. The charming locale, steeped in European culture, is known as “la belle province” or “the beautiful province.” Beyond its quaint cobblestone lanes, Quebec houses a wealth of high-tech companies, with AM capabilities among them. Quebec is home to one of the largest manufacturers of metal powder for AM in the world: AP&C, a Colibrium Additive company, which is also part of GE Aerospace. AP&C specializes in titanium and nickel-base powders often used in medical and aerospace applications. They employ an advanced plasma atomization process to produce powders that can deliver maximum performance. Another authority on AM technology is PRIMA, the Advanced Materials Research and Innovation Hub in Quebec. It is an incubator for research clusters that fund, support, and publish collaborative studies. In a joint effort with the National Research Council of Canada and Polytechnique Montreal, PRIMA developed innovative thermoplastic composites for 3D printing that utilize recycling and reuse through fused filament fabrication (FFF). This novel FFF process led to the development of nine cutting-edge technologies, which hold promise for use in higher-performance applications going forward. Explore more AM ecological efforts by reading “State of the Art in Material Upcycling for Additive Manufacturing” in this issue of AM&P. Through case studies, the author from Tennessee shows how repurposed machining chips and recycled feedstocks can greatly lower costs and lessen the environmental impact of AM production. The key is to integrate upcycling into existing manufacturing workflows. Whether stateside, in Quebec, or across the globe, additive manufacturing continues to be a technology driver in materials applications, and a popular programming focus at IMAT. Submit an abstract and join us in “la belle province” this fall to explore avant-garde manufacturing technologies and advanced materials. joanne.miller@asminternational.org AM powder production at AP&C.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 5 RESEARCH TRACKS ADVANCED MATERIALS COURTESY OF AI Researchers at Penn State developed a new AI framework with potential implications for fields ranging from Alzheimer’s disease research to advanced materials design. The approach, named ZENN, teaches AI models to recognize and adapt to hidden differences in data quality rather than ignoring them. ZENN, short for Zentropy- Embedded Neural Networks, was developed by Zi-Kui Liu, FASM, professor of materials science and engineering, and his colleagues Shun Wang, Wenrui Hao, and Shunli Shang. Zentropy is Liu’s advanced theory of entropy, which posits that systems tend to move towards disorder in the absence of energy to maintain order. This deeper theory of entropy integrates quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics into a cohesive predictive model. The researchers used this approach to develop their framework, embedding principles from thermodynamics directly into neural networks to allow models to distinguish meaningful signals from uncertainty and noise. ZENN takes an approach inspired by thermodynamics by breaking down data properties into two parts. One, called energy, captures the meaningful patterns or signals in the data. The other, called intrinsic entropy, captures the noise, uncertainty, or disorder in the measurements. The model also uses a “temperature” parameter that can be tuned, which helps it recognize hidden differences between datasets, such as whether the data comes from precise simulations or noisier experiments. This allows ZENN to focus on the true signal while accounting for varying data quality. In materials science, ZENN could help bridge the gap between idealized computer simulations and real-world experiments, according to Liu. By learning from both, the framework could guide the design of materials that are not only theoretically promising but also manufacturable, with potential applications ranging from medical implants for bone repair to advanced data platforms such as ULTERA, a system that manages and analyzes large, complex datasets. psu.edu. AI ASSISTANT FOR ENERGY MATERIALS DISCOVERY Spearheaded by the DOE’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, a new multi- institutional project will use artificial intelligence (AI) and supercomputers to speed discovery of materials for batteries, semiconductors, and other energy technologies. The project, FORUM-AI (Foundation Models Orchestrating Reasoning Agents to Uncover Materials Advances and Insights), supports the Genesis Mission, a new national initiative led by the DOE to advance AI and accelerate discovery, providing solutions for challenges in science, energy, and national security. “FORUM-AI aims to be the first fullstack, agentic AI system for materials science research and discovery,” says principal investigator Anubhav Jain, a staff scientist at Berkeley Lab leading the project. “It will help scientists at every step of energy materials research, from hypothesis generation and computer simulations to laboratory experiments and analysis.” The initiative is a collaboration between Berkeley Lab, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and The Ohio State University with a goal to develop an open-source, general- purpose AI platform for research in materials and the physical sciences. lbl.gov. Illustration of ZENN, a new kind of AI model, helping computers make sense of real-world information. Courtesy of Penn State/Jennifer M. McCann. Examples of energy compounds predicted by machine learning models trained by the Materials Project. Courtesy of Nature Materials.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 6 METALS | POLYMERS | CERAMICS prevent the deposition of corrosion products, and enable clear visualization of the exact locations where pits form,” says researcher Masashi Nishimoto. The team applied their technique to ADC12 (Al-12%Si-2%Cu), a die-cast Al alloy used for automotive parts. With alloys, numerous intermetallic compounds form during solidification, creating electrochemical inhomogeneities that are thought to cause pitting corrosion. However, conventional corrosion tests in sodium chloride solutions result in widespread discoloration of intermetallic compounds and deposition of corrosion products, obscuring pit initiation sites. This makes it difficult to pinpoint the precise cause. By using a boric-borate buffer solution, the new technique suppresses alkalization on intermetallic compounds. This prevents discoloration and reduces corrosion product deposition, allowing clear observation of pit initiation and early growth. Subsequent analysis by scanning transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy revealed that pits originate in the final solidification region. However, not all final solidification regions become a pit, which suggests that pit initiation also depends on specific local chemical compositions and microstructural features. “Being able to observe where and how these pits form is an exciting advancement, since it may help us find ways to prevent or slow down 2D TOPOLOGICAL INSULATOR DISCOVERY Physicists from University of Jyväskylä and Aalto University, both in Finland, experimentally realized a 2D topological crystalline insulator— a quantum material theoretically predicted for over a decade. Researchers created the material by growing an atomically thin, two-layer film of tin telluride on a niobium diselenide substrate. Using molecular beam epitaxy and low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy, the team characterized the electronic properties of the system with atomic-scale precision. In this 2D system, they observed pairs of conducting edge states that are protected by the symmetry of the crystal lattice. The edge states form within a large electronic band gap exceeding 0.2 eV. Measurements show that the SnTe film experiences compressive strain from the underlying substrate, which plays a crucial role in stabilizing the topological phase. Further, results show that the topological edge states can be tuned by strain, offering a method to control their electronic properties. Firstprinciples quantum-mechanical calculations confirm the topological origin of the observed edge states. The researchers also directly probed interactions between neighboring edge states, revealing energy shifts driven by a combination of electrostatic interactions and quantum tunneling. Because of the large band gap, the topological properties are expected to remain strong up to room temperature. According to the team, these results provide a new experimental platform for studying strain-tunable 2D topological states and may enable future advances in spin-based electronics and nanoscale devices. www.jyu.fi. PINPOINTING PITTING CORROSION IN ALUMINUM Scientists at Tohoku University, Japan, developed a technique to identify the initiation sites of pitting corrosion, which occurs when aluminum alloys are exposed to sodium chloride solutions. The discovery could accelerate development of Al alloys with improved corrosion resistance. “This innovative study combines realtime optical microscopy with a boric-borate buffer solution, in order to suppress discoloration around intermetallic compounds, This artistic AI illustration represents the team’s 2D system. Courtesy of University of Jyväskylä. Cross-sectional scanning transmission electron microscopy image of a pit initiation site identified using the developed technique. Courtesy of Kaito Takeuchi, Masashi Nishimoto, and Izumi Muto. A multi-institution research team led by the University of California, Los Angeles, discovered a metallic material with the highest thermal conductivity ever measured among metals. The team reported that metallic theta-phase tantalum nitride conducts heat nearly three times more efficiently than copper or silver. ucla.edu. BRIEF
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 7 their formation for more long-lasting vehicle components,” says Nishimoto. The method can be applied beyond die-cast alloys to reveal pitting corrosion mechanisms in other Al alloys as well. www.tohoku.ac.jp. NEW MAGNETS NEED NO RARE EARTHS Researchers at Georgetown University discovered a new class of strong magnets that do not rely on rare-earth or precious metals. They say the breakthrough could advance clean energy technologies such as motors, robotics, data storage, and more. To date, the strongest anisotropy materials for permanent magnets depend heavily on rare-earth elements. For thin film applications, certain alloys of iron and platinum have become the materials of choice for next-generation magnetic recording media. Finding high-performance alternatives based on earth-abundant elements remains an ongoing challenge. The team recently discovered a novel type of strong magnet based on high-entropy borides using a combination of 3D transition metals and boron. The materials do not require any rare-earths or precious metals. Most studies of high-entropy alloys focus on chemically disordered cubic structures, which are not well suited for strong magnetic anisotropy that prefers lower crystal symmetry. The researchers over- came this limitation by focusing on high-entropy borides, where boron promotes chemical ordering and lower-symmetry crystal structures. They targeted a crystal structure with tetragonal symmetry called C16 phase. This structure is known in boron-based materials made of two or three elements but is largely unexplored in more complex materials. The team synthesized the high-entropy borides using a combinatorial sputtering method where atoms of the multiple target materials thoroughly mix by the time they are collected on a heated substrate. This approach also allowed rapid explorations of many material compositions. On a single substrate, about 50 samples can be made simultaneously under identical conditions but with varying compositions. georgetown.edu. From left: Assistant professor of physics Gen Yin, Ph.D. student Willie Beeson, and Kai Liu, professor and McDevitt Chair in Physics, at Beeson’s thesis defense. Courtesy of Georgetown University. Are you maximizing your ASM membership? Expand your knowledge and apply your ASM International member-only discounts to a variety of professional development resources: • Reference Materials • ASM Handbooks Online • Technical Journals • Continuing Education Courses Learn more about your membership benefits by visiting: asminternational.org/membership
8 ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 X-RAYS EXAMINE BREATHING BATTERIES Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin, Northeastern University, Stanford University, and Argonne Na- tional Laboratory discovered that every cycle of charge and discharge causes batteries to expand and contract, similar to human breathing. This action causes battery components to warp a little bit each time, putting strain on the battery and weakening it. This phenomenon, known as chemomechanical degradation, leads to reduced performance and lifespan. One of the key discoveries was the identification of strain cascades, a chain reaction in which stress builds up in one part of the electrode and spreads to neighboring regions. The unique nature and unpredictable movements of the hundreds of thousands of particles in batteries contribute to this strain. By understanding how strain develops TESTING | CHARACTERIZATION SUPERSONIC TESTING DEFIES HALL-PETCH EFFECT Researchers at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., found that when deformed at extreme speeds, metals with very small grains become softer rather than stronger. The discovery is contrary to the so-called Hall-Petch effect, which for more than 70 years has held that smaller grains mean stronger metals. “We wanted to test the limits of that rule and see whether grain boundary strengthening still holds when metals are pushed into truly extreme deformation rates,” said assistant professor Mostafa Hassani. To understand how metals behave under ultra-fast deformation, Hassani’s group used laser-induced microprojectile impact testing, which targets metals with microscopic particles at velocities that exceed the speed of sound. The team prepared copper samples with grain sizes of 1 to 100 µm, all within the range where the Hall-Petch effect normally applies. In impact tests, larger- grained samples consistently exhibited shallower indentations and dissipated more kinetic energy, clear signs of greater hardness in the copper. The scientists attribute the results to how dislocations move when a metal deforms. At ordinary strain rates, grain boundaries and other crystal defects strengthen a metal by blocking the motion of these dislocations. But at ultra-high strain rates, dislocations accelerate fast enough to start interacting with the material’s vibrating atoms. This interaction, called dislocation-phonon drag, can significantly strengthen the metal. The team is now testing other metals and alloys, and the same trend appears. At extremely high deformation rates, the strengthening effect from dislocation-phonon drag can be greatly reduced and even eliminated in smaller grains. cornell.edu. Left: SEM images of the Cu microstructure with average grain size of (a) 1 µm and (b) 100 µm. Right: EBSD inverse pole figures for Cu with (c) 1 µm and (d) 100 µm grain sizes. Courtesy of Phys. Rev. Lett., 2026, doi.org/10.1103/yp9h-sr2m. Researchers at the DOE’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tenn., partnered with the University of Tennessee to develop a device that enables real-time insight into electric grid behavior. The Universal GridEdge Analyzer records tiny changes in electrical voltage and current as waveforms, then immediately streams the data to centralized servers. ornl.gov. Leica Microsystems, Germany, was awarded the Silver Medal by EcoVadis, a provider of global business sustainability ratings. The honor puts Leica among the top 15% of rated businesses worldwide and affirms the company’s commitment to environmental stewardship. leica-microsystems.com. BRIEFS From left: Guannan Qian and Tianxio Sun investigate battery performance in the lab. Courtesy of University of Texas at Austin. (a) (b) (c) (d)
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 9 and spreads, engineers can create electrodes that are more resistant to stress and degradation. For example, the study suggests that applying controlled pressure to battery cells could help mitigate strain and enhance performance. “Our ultimate goal is the creation of advanced technologies that can substantially increase the utility and durability of batteries,” says researcher Jason Croy of Argonne National Laboratory. “Understanding how the design of electrodes influences their response to stress is a critical step in pushing the boundaries of what batteries can do.” In their research, the team used advanced imaging techniques to observe battery electrodes in real time during charging and discharging. Specialized tools including operando transmission x-ray microscopy and 3D x-ray laminography captured detailed images of how particles within the electrodes move and interact. The next step will focus on developing theoretical models to further understand the complex interactions between chemical and mechanical processes in battery electrodes. utexas.edu. NEW ISO STANDARD TESTS THICKNESS OF GRAPHENE The University of Manchester, U.K., recently led the world’s largest study to set a new global benchmark for testing the single-atom thickness of graphene. Working with the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), also in the U.K., and 15 other research institutes worldwide, the team developed a reliable method using transmission electron micro- scopy that will support future industrial standards including a new ISO technical specification for graphene. “Electron diffraction has long been used to distinguish monolayer from few layer graphene, but it’s often applied without a full treatment of uncertainties. By collaborating across 15 leading labs including the original pioneers, we’ve mapped the pitfalls and shown Electron diffraction analysis of monolayer graphene. Courtesy of The University of Manchester. how to get reliable results,” says researcher Evan Tillotson of The University of Manchester. The findings are used directly within the ISO/TS 21356-2 international standard, expected to be published later this year. “This work builds on the NPL Good Practice Guide 145 ‘Characterization of the Structure of Graphene’ developed in partnership with The University of Manchester, and one of NPL’s most downloaded guides,” notes Andrew Pollard, principal scientist at NPL. www.manchester.ac.uk. The inaugural FAS Summit on Failure Analysis & Prevention was held in picturesque Oceanside, California, on January 27-29. Organized by ASM International’s Failure Analysis Society, the event attracted 58 attendees from 16 states and Canada. It kicked off with two education courses that were attended by 23 students. The technical program consisted of 15 invited presentations and one panel discussion. Sponsors of this first- time event were Applied Technical Services and Dennies Metallurgical Solutions Inc. A welcome reception on the Rooftop Deck featured coastal views of the Pacific Ocean, curated food and cocktails, and a sunset backdrop. “Discussions were lively and the networking possibilities were endless. The San Diego area could not have been better for a winter summit. Planning for the next FAS Summit is underway.” —Dan Dennies, FAS Summit chair Left: James Lane, Dustin Turnquist, Brett Miller, FASM, and Burak Akyuz, FASM, enjoy networking alongside the Pacific coastline. ASM Vice President Dan Dennies, FASM, teaches a course at the FAS Summit. Attendees, speakers, organizers, and sponsors of the successful, inaugural FAS Summit in Oceanside, California. FAS SUMMIT HIGHLIGHTS
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 10 MACHINE LEARNING | AI In 2011, the DOE’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory launched what would become the world’s mostcited materials database— the Materials Project. The platform is continuing to evolve its machine learning capabilities, with plans for enhanced computational methods and improved handling of complex materials behavior. The database now serves over 650,000 users. lbl.gov. BRIEF FOAM FLOW PHYSICS MIRRORS MACHINE LEARNING Scientists at the University of Pennsylvania recently discovered that foams flow ceaselessly inside while holding their external shape. This is a stark contrast with what scientists believed for decades—that foams behave like glass with their microscopic components trapped in static, disordered configurations. Even more unusual is that from a mathematical perspective, this internal motion resembles the process of deep learning, the method typically used to train AI systems. The finding could hint that learning, in a broad mathematical sense, may be a common organizing prin- ciple across physical, biological, and computational systems, and provide a conceptual foundation for future efforts to design adaptive materials. The insight could also shed new light on biological structures that continuously rearrange themselves, like the scaffolding in living cells. In their study, the team used computer simulations to track the movement of bubbles in a wet foam. Rather than eventually staying put, the bubbles continued to meander through possible configurations. Mathematically speaking, the process mirrors how deep learning involves continually adjusting an AI system’s parameters during training. “Foams constantly reorganize themselves,” says researcher John C. Crocker. “It’s striking that foams and modern AI systems appear to follow the same mathematical principles. Understanding why that happens is still an open question, but it could reshape how we think about adaptive materials and even living systems.” upenn.edu. AI SPEEDS ORGANIC BATTERY RESEARCH Researchers at the DOE’s Argonne National Laboratory used robotics, automation, and AI to conduct more than 6000 experiments in just five From left, John C. Crocker and Robert Riggleman spent years investigating the math that describes how bubbles in foam move and found that it mirrors how AI systems learn. months on chemicals used in organic redox flow batteries (RFBs). Such an effort would have taken five to eight years with traditional experimentation. Organic RFBs use organic molecules instead of traditional metal ions. During their study, the team made a crucial finding about these batteries: A fundamental barrier at the molecular level limits their stability. This insight is expected to inspire new directions in battery chemical research. With human-driven experiments, tackling this ambitious research would require years of coordinated global effort to investigate the vast space of organic solvents. Laboratory automation offered a key opportunity to address the challenge in a much shorter time and with significantly fewer resources. Machine learning algorithms guided the test iterations based on analysis of experimental data. This allowed the team to characterize 540 solvents by sampling just a third of them. The study’s insights could spur development of innovative use cases to make organic RFBs commercially viable. For example, organic materials could be used in grid-scale batteries for a limited time and then repurposed for other applications such as agricultural herbi- cides and materials for the chemical industry, say researchers. anl.gov. Scientists used high-throughput experiments and AI to reveal stability limits in redox flow batteries. Courtesy of Argonne National Laboratory.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 1 1 PROCESS TECHNOLOGY CARBON-FREE HEAT TREATMENT Researchers at the Korea Institute of Energy Research, South Korea, developed an electrified heat treatment technology that replaces fossil fuels with electricity in the metal heat treatment process used in galvanized steelstrip production for automobiles and household appliances. The new method is expected to be applicable across several energy-intensive industries including steelmaking. The team developed a carbon-free annealing system that operates solely on electricity by replacing the burners of conventional into the pure water, leaving magnesium behind without any external electricity or added pressure. This simple method also works at high salinities unlike other approaches for separating lithium, and it uses less water than evaporation ponds, which are disruptive to communities living near lithium brines. Engineers typically use electric currents during electrodialysis to separate dissolved elements. Usually, ions with a stronger positive charge such as magnesium are more attracted to the negative charges and cross first. But when the team removed the electric current and put pure water on one side of the membrane instead of an electrolyte, lithium—the ion with the weaker charge—crossed first. The unexpected behavior is explained by charge balance: For each positive ion that crosses the membrane, a negative ion must also pass through. Lithium prefers to balance the charge from the chloride, so when chloride diffuses into the pure water, lithium follows. The new method cannot separate lithium from other ions with the same charge, such as sodium, but they could be separated by pairing the new technique with evaporation, lithium-selective adsorbents, or chemicals that selectively precipitate lithium. umich.edu. combustion-based annealing furnaces with electric heating elements. When tested under conditions resembling commercial production, the technology reduced concentrations of CO2 and nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases by more than 98%. The core of the new system is its furnace design. Researchers retained the refractory structure and steelstrip conveying mechanism of conventional combustion- based annealing furnaces while replacing burners with electric heating elements installed on both the upper and lower sections of the furnace. In addition, by precisely designing the distance between the heating elements and the steel strip, the system enables rapid and uniform heating through high-temperature radiant heat while minimizing heat loss to the furnace walls. When the system was used to anneal steel strips with a thickness of 0.49 mm at 750°C, results confirmed that the color, microstructure, and mechanical properties of the strips were equivalent to those achieved using conventional annealing furnaces. www.kier.re.kr/eng. MINING LITHIUM FROM LOW-QUALITY BRINES Scientists at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, discovered that lithium can be selectively extracted from low-quality brines by using a surprising new mechanism. They say the technology could help make brine lakes rich in magnesium a more sustainable source of lithium for batteries and renewable energy technologies. In the new method, a negatively charged membrane separates a brine from pure water. Lithium diffuses through the membrane Bodycote, London, acquired Spectrum Thermal Processing, Cranston, R.I. Spectrum brings Nadcap-accredited and ITAR-compliant capabilities including vacuum heat treatment, low pressure carburizing, and gas nitriding services. The company will be integrated into Bodycote’s aerospace, defense, and energy division. bodycote.com. BRIEF Photo of the demonstration site where researchers perfected a new electrified heat treatment. Courtesy of Korea Institute of Energy Research. Jovan Kamcev, associate professor of chemical engineering, extracts a brine sample from a diffusion cell. Courtesy of Marcin Szczepanski/ Michigan Engineering.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 EMERGING TECHNOLOGY 12 NASA AWARDS SUPPORT HYPERSONIC FLIGHT NASA recently issued two new awards for studies into hypersonic flight concepts. Some vehicles such as rockets achieve hypersonic speeds by carrying supplies of oxygen to allow their fuel to burn instead of using the surrounding air. In contrast, NASA’s Hypersonic Technology Project (HTP) aims to advance airbreathing, reusable hypersonic aircraft that take in air as they fly, enabling significantly longer sustained cruising at hypersonic speeds. Due to commercial interest in finding applications for airbreathing hypersonic vehicles, the HTP is looking to find ways to make testing and development easier. The new awards went to SpaceWorks Enterprises, Atlanta, and Stratolaunch, Mojave, California. The funding will support a six-month NASA study exploring how current vehicles could be modified to meet the need for reusable, high-cadence, and affordable flight-testing capabilities. SpaceWorks will use its $500,000 award to focus on the X-60 platform, while Stratolaunch will use its $1.2 million award to develop the Talon-A platform. Through these grants, NASA would like the industry to help define the capabilities needed to achieve flight test requirements. The work could also support a future NASA Making Advancements in Commercial Hypersonics project focused on advancing commercial hypersonic vehicles. nasa.gov. ALL-SOLID-STATE BATTERIES RESIST FIRE Researchers at the Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science (KRISS) developed a materials technology to accelerate commercialization of all- solid-state batteries (ASSBs), which are designed to eliminate the risks of fire and explosion. The Emerging Material Metrology Group at KRISS demonstrated ultra-dense, large-area solid electrolyte membranes by applying a method that coats solid electrolyte powders with multifunctional compounds, reducing production costs to 10% of conventional levels. ASSBs replace the liquid electrolytes commonly used in lithium- ion batteries with nonflammable solid electrolytes, improving safety. Among them, oxide-based ASSBs have gained attention as a promising option due to their high energy density and the absence of risks associated with toxic gas release. Oxide-based ASSBs primarily feature garnet-type solid electrolytes as their core materials due to high ionic conductivity and excellent chemical stability. However, fabrication of high-performance electrolyte membranes requires a high-temperature sintering process, in which the powder is compacted at temperatures exceeding 1000°C. A major challenge during sintering is lithium evaporation, which compromises the structural stability of the electrolyte and leads to significant degradation in material quality. The researchers developed a fabrication technique that thinly coats solid electrolyte powders with Li-Al-O- based multifunctional compound. The resulting surface coating supplies lithium during the sintering process while preventing lithium evaporation. The coating also enhances interparticle bonding through a soldering-like effect, thereby maximizing densification of the electrolyte membrane. Using this approach, the team achieved a record-high density exceeding 98.2%, producing high-strength solid electrolyte membranes free of chemical and mechanical defects. www.nst.re.kr. Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and Kyoto Fusioneering will develop critical technologies to accelerate deployment of commercial fusion energy. The collaboration will leverage ORNL’s expertise in supercomputing, advanced manufacturing, materials science, and fusion research in developing a fusion blanket test facility. ornl.gov. BRIEF The NASA award to SpaceWorks Enterprises focuses on research using the company’s X-60 platform. Courtesy of SpaceWorks. Research team develops key materials technologies for oxide-based solid electrolyte membranes. Courtesy of KRISS.
ADDITIVE BRAZING 13 ADDITIVE BRAZING FOR NEW PART PRODUCTION, REMANUFACTURING, AND WEAR PROTECTION Ino Rass and Timo Kolberg Euromat GmbH, Baesweiler, NRW, Germany Additive brazing produces dense, wear-resistant, crack-free, and corrosion-resistant coatings that often do not require further processing.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 14 Additive brazing is an innovative process for creating high-loadbearing and functional coatings. It allows for the diffusion bonding of components without the use of flux, making it particularly suitable for coating workpieces with a variety of special materials. Especially notable is the flexibility of the process in terms of coating thickness and hardness, which can be adjusted according to the specific requirements of the application. Two- or multi-component parts are not joined by solid-state bonding but are instead coated with brazing materials through diffusion bonding. Brazing materials specially adapted for this process are typically based on nickel, cobalt, iron, or copper alloys. Depending on the required coating function, hard materials can be added to tailor the properties. These include carbides, silicides, borides, oxides, and superhard phases such as diamond or cubic boron nitride. Among these, WC, CrC, and NbC are most commonly used. The hard material content of the coating can reach up to 80 wt% or more, allowing a wide adjustment range of coating hardness, from approximately 18–30 HRC up to 62–65 HRC. The mechanical strength of high-temperature brazed hard coatings is equivalent to that of the base material, resulting in a highly load-bearing composite layer. 2D and 3D geometries can be coated on both the inside and outside. Typical coating thicknesses range from 0.1 to 10 mm or more, with a typical thickness of 1.0 to 2.0 mm. A key advantage of the brazing coating process is its extremely high deposition efficiency, which can approach 100% when using tapes, preforms, slurries, or powders. The additive brazed coatings can take on various functions. For example, the hard particles introduced into the brazing material can be firmly brazed onto the component surface to provide wear protection or gripping functionality. Alternatively, worn components such as molds or turbine blades can be recontoured by inserting suitable materials in the form of tapes or slurries into the worn areas, which are then post-processed (Fig. 1). Recent developments also show the possibility of locally brazing applied tapes or suspensions using laser energy, without the need to heat the entire component. By selecting appropriate morphologies of the starting powders for the brazing matrix materials and hard materials, the coating system can be specifically optimized and adapted for the respective application. WHAT IS BRAZING? Brazing is a thermal joining process in which two or more metallic components are connected using a filler material that has a lower melting point than the components being joined. In contrast to welding, where the components themselves are melted, brazing keeps the base material solid, with the components being bonded together by the melting of the filler material. The filler, typically an alloy, is applied to the parts to be joined and heated until it melts, spreading into the joints between the components, where it forms a strong, permanent connection upon solidification. A distinctive feature of brazing is that the filler material has a melting temperature above 450°C, distinguishing it from low-temperature soldering processes such as soft soldering. Brazing can be carried out using different heating methods, including vacuum or protective gas furnaces, flame brazing, induction heating, and laser- based melting. The selection of the specific process route depends on the material system and manufacturing requirements. The brazed joint is primarily formed through capillary action and the diffusion of the filler material into the microcracks and gaps between the components. After heating, the filler cools in the gaps between the components, forming a solid metal bond. Brazing can be used to join a wide range of materials, such as metals, ceramics, or composite materials, and is suitable not only for simple joints but also for complex geometries. Depending on the type of filler used, different physical and mechanical properties can be achieved during the brazing process. Filler materials based on silver, copper, nickel, or aluminum are commonly used, and these fillers can be enriched with additives to enhance the strength, Fig. 1 — Example of images of different brazed coatings using tape technology.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 15 corrosion resistance, or thermal conductivity of the joint. In many cases, specialized alloys or high-melting-point fillers are chosen to withstand high loads and temperatures in the components’ operating environment. Brazing has established itself as a highly versatile process and is used in many industries, including aerospace, automotive manufacturing, electronics production, as well as in the manu- facture of heat exchangers and piping. It offers advantages such as the ability to join materials that cannot be welded, high accuracy and precision during the joining operation, and minimal deformation of the components due to the relatively low-temperature brazing process compared to welding. Another advantage of brazing is the ability to join components without excessive heat input, which allows for the processing of delicate materials or complex component structures without damaging them or impairing their properties. Additive brazing is a thermal process performed without flux in a vacuum, under protective gas, or even in the atmosphere, using brazing materials in powder, slurry, or tape form, with a liquidus temperature typically above 900°C. The coatings are very dense, wear-resistant, crack-free, and are therefore also highly effective as corrosion protection, even under high-temperature conditions. Unlike with cladding welding, the brazed layers are relatively smooth and often do not require further processing or grinding. In this context, additive brazing is increasingly becoming a key technology for the manufacturing of components with specific, high-loadbearing properties. FROM POWDER TO BRAZED COATINGS The starting point for any coating produced by additive brazing is the powders used. These powders, especially the metallic powders, play a central role in the entire manufacturing process and form the foundation of this advanced technology. They are crucial because they not only influence the physical properties of the coating but also significantly determine the quality and performance of the final product. Therefore, selecting the right powder is of enormous importance. A well-chosen powder contributes significantly to achieving an optimal coating result, as it promotes the desired properties such as adhesion, strength, corrosion resistance, and durability of the coating. On the other hand, poorly chosen powders can impair the coating quality and lead to unwanted effects such as poor material adhesion or inadequate sta- bility. For this reason, selecting the right powder requires careful analysis of material requirements and specific process conditions. When choosing an appropriate powder, a variety of factors play a decisive role. These factors must be carefully considered to ensure the powder is optimally suited for the intended application. Among the most important aspects is powder morphology, which includes various parameters that significantly affect the quality and usability of the powder (Fig. 2). These include: • Shape and Purity: The shape of the powder particles has a significant impact on their behavior during processing. Uniform particle shapes and high purity are important for consistent performance and reliable results. Particles with irregular shapes or impurities could negatively affect the quality of the final product. • Grain Size Distribution: The size of the powder particles and their distribution are crucial for many applications. For example, fine particle size can influence surface reactivity and packing density, while larger particles can lead to lower density. A controlled grain size distribution ensures that the powder performs its intended function under the given conditions. • Tap Density: This refers to the volume the powder occupies after being tapped repeatedly. It is an indicator of the powder’s packability and plays an important role in determining the dosage and volume of the powder in a specific application. Higher tap density indicates better particle compaction, which can affect the handling and transport of the powder. • Flowability: Another essential criteria is the powder’s ability to flow without clogging or aggregation. Good flowability is especially important in automated processes and when dosing the powder, as it enables precise handling and improves efficiency. • Surface Energy: The surface energy of a powder influences its inter- action with other materials, such as in the manufacture of composites or in melt processing. High surface energy can lead to better wetting and adhesion, which is beneficial in many industrial applications. The optimal powder for brazing technology consists of so-called hard materials embedded in a matrix of other materials. The choice of matrix and hard materials plays a decisive role in the per- formance and durability of the deposit. Possible matrix materials that can be used in this context include nickel, iron, cobalt, copper, silver, tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, chromium Fig. 2 — Different powder morphologies.
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | MARCH 2026 16 depending on the binder composition. These alternatives provide additional flexibility to meet various requirements in coating technology. Preforms are prefabricated solder materials in solid form that are applied to the components as needed, while slurries are liquid suspensions of the solder material that are applied to the component and then sintered. Furthermore, different coating architectures can be implemented, including monolayer, multilayer, top- layer, and bond-layer configurations, allowing functional tailoring to specific application requirements. Figure 5 illustrates these different types of coatings and shows their respective characteristics and areas of application. ADVANTAGES OF BRAZED COATINGS Brazing is primarily used to coat and repair components and parts in various industries. It offers numerous advantages that make it a preferred choice for many manufacturing processes. In brazing, the filler material is applied precisely and deliberately to the joint, achieving high accuracy. This carbide, nitride-bonded boron carbide, and iron-chromium carbide. Nickel is a very versatile material that is commonly used due to its good corrosion resistance and strength at high temperatures. Iron is highly available and is used in many industrial applications due to its stability and workability. Cobalt is known for its high temperature resistance and strength and is mainly used in high-stress applications. Copper offers excellent thermal conductivity and is often used in combination with other materials to optimize specific mechanical properties. Silver is an excellent heat conductor and is particularly used in applications requiring good thermal and electrical conductivity. Other materials, depending on the application, may also be considered, including tin, zinc, CuSn, and AlN. On the other hand, there are a number of hard materials frequently used in powder form to improve the hardness, wear resistance, and other mechanical properties of the final product (Figs. 3 and 4). These include tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, chromium carbide, nitride-bonded boron carbide, and iron-chromium carbide. The selection of the right combination of matrix and hard materials depends on the specific requirements of the brazing technology. It must optimize both the mechanical and thermal properties of the final product. Depending on the application, other hard metals and/or ceramics can be added to the matrix materials, such as BN, NbC, AlN, diamonds, or cubic boron nitride. BRAZING METHODS After the base powder is selected, it is used in various brazing technologies to ensure a stable connection between the components. One method of brazing is so-called tape technology, where the metallic powder is first mixed with a special binder that ensures the particles stay together. The mixture is then processed into a thin, flexible band, called a brazing tape. This brazing tape is then applied to the components to be coated and subsequently sintered at high temperatures. The sintering process causes the metal powder to transition into a solid, bonding structure, allowing for a permanent coating of the components. Another interesting feature of tape technology is that it does not require the use of flux, simplifying the process and reducing the need for additional materials. It is also possible to produce other forms such as preforms or slurries, Fig. 3 — Micrograph of an atmosphere brazed tungsten carbide coating on ductile cast iron. Fig. 4 — Micrograph of an atmosphere brazed Ni-coating (25 HRC) for sealing surfaces. Fig. 5 — Schematic representation of different coating systems.
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