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A D V A N C E D M A T E R I A L S & P R O C E S S E S | J U L Y / A U G U S T 2 0 2 0 2 4 only on a surface of a photoresin. The resolution and the printing rate depend on laser energy and intensity, which leads to a different voxel size (Fig. 6) and the rate and precision of substrate moving. Biocompatible organic-inor- ganic photoresins for 2PP have been developed [30,31] . POTENTIAL RESEARCH ISSUES Extrusion-based bioprinting can be used for printing a broad variety of materials and requires relatively long times to fabricate clinically relevant scaffolds. These scaffolds possess high water content and are subjected to the process of gelation (hydrogels print- ing) or have a solid polymer, compos- ite structure after FDM processing. This technique is not limited to soft scaffolds and due to mechanical reinforcement is appropriate for hard tissues replace- ment [3,4,12] . Laser bioprinting enables very high precision and attention to de- tail of native tissues. The limitations in- clude long build times, cross-linking after deposition as an extra step, and the effects of heat and forces from the laser pulse on cell survival. Low cost, high resolution, and high compatibility with many biomaterials are some of the advantages of this technology [19,22,27,28] . Although the potential use of bi- oprinting has drawn considerable in- terest since its inception, currently available commercial products are few in number. The post-processing chal- lenges of 3D bioprinting include the maturation level of tissues and cells af- ter printing and the mechanical integri- ty of the bioprinted constructs. Issues such as biocompatibility and printabil- ity intended for biomaterials must be considered. The gelation time for hy- drogels is another consideration. The coming years will most likely see novice approaches to design and manufacture complete 3D constructs, which have a very high cellular viability, biocompati- bility, and integrity. ~AM&P For more information: Roger J. Narayan, professor, UNC/NCSU Joint Department of Biomedical Engineer- ing, Box 7115, Raleigh, NC 27695-7115, rjnaraya@ncsu.edu , bme.unc.edu/ people/roger-narayan/. References 1. S. Derakhshanfar, et al., “3D Bio- printing for Biomedical Devices and Tissue Engineering: A Review of Recent Trends and Advances,” Bioactive Ma- terials, 3(2), p 144-156, 2018. 2. C.L. Ventola, “Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Current and Projected Uses,” Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 39(10), p 704, 2014. 3. F. Pati, et al., “Extrusion Bioprint- ing,” Essentials of 3D Biofabrication and Translation, Elsevier, p 123-152, 2015. 4. M. Singh, et al., “Inkjet Printing— Process and its Applications,” Advanced Materials, 22(6), p 673-685, 2010. 5. F. Fina, et al., “Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) 3D Printing of Medi- cines,” International Journal of Phar- maceutics, 529(1-2), p 285-293, 2017. 6. J. Borrello, et al., “3D Printing a Mechanically Tunable Acrylate Resin on a Commercial DLP-SLA Printer,” Additive Manufacturing, 23, p 374-380, 2018. 7. A. Antoshin, et al., “LIFT-Bioprinting, is it Worth it?” Bioprinting, p. e00052, 2019. 8. O. Kérourédan, et al., “Laser-Assisted Bioprinting for Tissue Engineering, in Biomaterials and Nanotechnology for Tissue Engineering,” CRC Press. p 287-304, 2016. 9. A.K. Nguyen, and R.J. Narayan, “Two-photon Polymerization for Bio- logical Applications,” Materials Today, 20(6), p 314-322, 2017. 10. B.K. Gu, et al., “3-Dimensional Bioprinting for Tissue Engineering Ap- plications,” Biomaterials Research, 20(1), p 12, 2016. 11. A.B. Dababneh, and I.T. Ozbolat, “Bioprinting Technology: A Current State-of-the-Art Review,” Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 136(6), 2014. 12. I.T. Ozbolat, and M. Hospodiuk, “Current Advances and Future Perspec- tives in Extrusion-based Bio-printing,” Biomaterials, 76, p 321-343, 2016. 13. D. Zuev, et al., “Preparation of β-Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 /Poly (D, L-lactide) and β-Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 /Poly (ε-caprolactone) Bio- composite Implants for Bone Substi- tution,” Inorganic Materials, 54(1), p 87-95, 2018. 14. D. Zuev, et al., “Mechanical Char- acteristics of Composites Based on β-Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 /Poly (D, L-Lactide) and β-Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 /Poly(ε-Caprolactone),” Inor- ganic Materials: Applied Research, 10(1), p 109-113, 2019. 15. D.Zuev,etal.,“MixedCa2+/Na+(Mg2+) Polyphosphates for Polymer Matrix Filling and their Solubility,” IOP Con- ference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, IOP Publishing, 2018. 16. B. Zhang, et al., “3D Bioprinting: A Novel Avenue for Manufacturing Tissues and Organs,” Engineering, 2019. 17. M. Nakamura, et al., “Biocompatible Inkjet Printing Technique for De- signed Seeding of Individual Living Cells,” Tissue Engineering, 11(11-12), p 1658-1666, 2005. 18. J.-P. Kruth, et al., “Lasers and Materials in Selective Laser Sintering,” Assembly Automation, 2003. 19. J.M. Williams, et al., “Bone Tissue Engineering using Polycaprolactone Scaffolds Fabricated via Selective Laser Sintering,” Biomaterials, 26(23), p 4817-4827, 2005. 20. P. Rider, et al., “Additive Manufac- turing for Guided Bone Regeneration: A Perspective for Alveolar Ridge Augmentation,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(11), p 3308, 2018. 21. Z. Wang, et al., “A Simple and High- resolution Stereolithography-based 3D Bioprinting System using Visible Light Crosslinkable Bioinks,” Biofabrication, 7(4), p 045009, 2015. 22. C. Kurzmann, et al., “Evaluation of ResinsforStereolithographic3D-Printed Surgical Guides: The Response of L929 Cells and Human Gingival Fibroblasts,” BioMed Research International, 2017. 23. F.P. Melchels, J. Feijen, and D.W. Grijpma, “A Review on Stereolithog- raphy and its Applications in Biomedical Engineering,” Biomaterials, 31(24), p 6121-6130, 2010. 24. V. Putlyaev, et al., “Fabricationof Os-