ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES | SEPTEMBER 2026 16 that almost every point within a printed volume is available for inspection over the course of manufacturing. The resulting increased understanding of process-property relations and part-specific datasets will ultimately enable adaptation of metal AM to lower-margin components with firsttime-right performance. Pushing toward this peak performance level, Relativity Space, which uses WAAM to produce most economically viable applications to date are in high value fields such as aerospace, where accompanying qualification and certification expenses are justified. Research and development are ongoing to integrate Industry 4.0 concepts, such as automated in-situ process monitoring (e.g., cameras and other sensors coupled with validation), into DED AM, taking advantage of the fact shape welding, termed wire arc AM (WAAM). With the development of accessible design software, automated generation of robotic welding toolpaths from a digitally represented target geometry was quickly demonstrated[18]. As with shape welding, WAAM is being evaluated to augment supply chains for cast and forged components. Components can now be produced on demand with only a few skilled engineers and operators. For example, in 2023, Newport News Shipbuilding, in collaboration with Lincoln Electric, used WAAM to produce a 400-lb reactor compartment door hinge for permanent installation on the USS Enterprise (CVN-80) (Fig. 6). The door hinge was produced in only 10 weeks via WAAM, side- stepping production bottlenecks in the conventional casting supply chain[19]. AUTOMATED NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION Newport News Shipbuilding performed a comprehensive parallel effort of destructive and nondestructive testing when producing the hinge to certify the component for service[19]. Due to the large number of process variables in DED AM and the uncertain connection between all process variables and component performance, Fig. 5 — Mid-20th century shape welding efforts focused on manufacturing 1+ ton components. (a) System schematic for analog process programming developed by R. Müller and finished 1 m OD axisymmetric flange[16]. (b) Multi-step production of a >2000 kg, 1.5 m diameter flanged pressure vessel hemisphere, showing flange manufacture and adding integral pipe bosses[16]. (c) 72-ton thick-walled vessel documented by Kussmaul et al. in 1983 using four tandem SAW heads[17]. (a) (b) (c) Fig. 6 — A 400-lb reactor compartment door hinge manufactured via WAAM and machined to net shape, for installation on the USS Enterprise (CVN-80)[19]. Fig. 7 — Relativity Space Stargate WAAM system, capable of manufacturing large-scale metal components up to 20 feet in diameter. Courtesy of Relativity Space.
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